History Essay on the Pre-Modern World: Indian and Southern Africa History

The history of India began with the emergence of the Harappan civilization, located in the Indus valley, the greatest flowering of which came in the III century BC. The Indian civilization was followed by the Vedic period, which had lasted up to the V century BC. In Vedic times, the relations of life were determined by the needs and requirements of individuals rather than by cast-iron rules(Williams,1926). The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BC with the advent of a civilization of the Indus Valley. The characteristic feature of this period is the extensive development of crafts based on the smelting of copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The flowering of Indian civilization came in the period from 2600 to 1900 BC. At this time, first cities and settlements appeared in this territory.

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This ancient civilization was formed in the Indus valley, having spread to the valley of the river Ghaggar Hakra (which is identified by most scholars as the Vedic river Saraswati, located between the rivers Ganges and Yamuna, Gujarat and the territory of northern Afghanistan.) The largest urban centers were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro and Dholavira, Ganverivala, Lothal, and Kalibanga Rakhigari. As a result of the drying of the river Saraswati and changing the channel of the Indus River major geological and climatic changes led to the disappearance of forests and desertification of the region. These factors caused the decline and disappearance of Indian civilization.

During this period, in Africa about 400 years BC there was contact with Mediterranean civilizations including Carthage. The deep originality of Africa Minor, lying on the borders of the continent, the result both of the drying-up of the Sahara and of the appearance of navigation, needs to be stressed. However, not all links with deeper Africa were broken (Mokhtar, 1981). As evidenced by Herodotus, Berbers carried regular trading in gold across the Sahara. Trading was relatively insignificant until the beginning of the use of camels as caravan animals. Archaeologists in the wells have found Mediterranean products kept at a sufficient distance from the Mediterranean Sea up to Northern Nigeria.

It has developed a profitable trade, in which the inhabitants of West Africa exported gold, cotton cloth, metal ornaments, and leather goods to the north across the Sahara. In return, they received copper, horses, salt, textiles, and necklaces. Later developed trade in ivory, slaves and cola nuts contributed to the development of an economy.

From the V century BC begins the Buddhist period in the history of ancient India. Buddha an individual who has attained enlightenment used to live in this epoch. In cultural terms, at this time the main event becomes the spread of iron tools. Trade and market relations are developing quickly. Thousands of the city are built. The royal power strengthens. Due to the slave trade, the influx of the free labor force increases. Magadha became the strongest state in North India and its capital. Pataliputra became the largest and richest city. Magadha ascended the throne in the IV century BC, and founded the Nanda dynasty. It is this dynasty united under his rule the whole of the Ganges basin.

Indian history provides excellent examples of evolution. Prehistoric sites with stone tools were almost exclusively found in areas which were not centres of the great empires of the later stages of history: the area between Udaipur and Jaipur, the valley of the Narmada river, the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, the country between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra (Raichur Doab), the area of the east coast where the highlands are nearest to the sea (to the north of present Madras), the rim of the Chota Nagpur Plateau and both slopes of the mountain ranges of central India. About I-V centuries AD India began developing feudal relations and soon became dominant in the trade business in the continent ( Kulke, 2002). In the vast Indian sub-continent during the first centuries AD lived, according to rough estimates, about 50 million population. India's population consisted of numerous tribes that were on different levels of socio-economic development. Some of these tribes still retain the primitive communal system, while others were at a nascent stage of class society. At the same time in the valley of the Ganges, the Indus, a number of other rivers and in coastal areas Dean lived people, who already appeared in antiquity class relations and developed statehood. Geographic and ethnic fragmentation of the Indian peoples, especially in the north, where the peoples lived, speaking mainly in the Indo-Aryan languages, and the south, dominated by the Dravidian peoples, led to the fact that the North and South India, as a rule, included in the different political groups. But at the same time throughout the medieval period, there was the concept of the unity of the single India, which served as the basis of the common cultural heritage of antiquity, based primarily on Hinduism and Sanskrit.

At this time in Africa, the Phoenicians changed the economic and political conditions of life that affected the formation of the religious beliefs of the people in the northern part of the country. Their colonies on the coast of North Africa, where the most powerful was Carthage, were founded I-IV millennium BC.

Then North Africa for more than four centuries was a part of the Roman Empire. It was Christianized around the same time as the northern coast of the Mediterranean. In V century BC the Vandals occupied the coast of North Africa. Since the VIII BC with the growing influence of Islam, the history of North Africa is separated from the history of Europe. Islam supplanted Christianity from almost all African countries with the exception of a large part of Ethiopia and Egypt, where the adherents of Christianity have survived - the Copts. In the XI-XII centuries. Almoravides united Maghreb (North Africa) and Andalusia in a vast empire, which then passes into the hands of Almohad. Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Sudan, Senegal, Mauritania, Somalia, Libya, Central African Republic and some other countries are considered as Muslim territories.

During the III century AD Africa mining and processing of iron achieved a great progress. Agricultural productivity raised strongly due to the construction of giant terraced irrigation systems, and for the first time there was an opportunity to provide food for large commercial cities and the capital city of Axum. The growth of the surplus product allowed the aristocracy, having withdrawn from the ranks of the tribal nobility, assign a significant part of it and thus accumulate great wealth. The ruling dynasty of Axum strengthened the state power in its relations with other states and intensified exploitation of the population within the country.

A similar situation was in the Middle Ages and later developed in India. In VI century in India slave system was replaced with the feudal system. Indian peasants and the feudal system continued to live in communities. Near the village, inhabited by commoners, there were a corral and a playground for threshing. On towers around the field there was a watchman on duty, driving away from the crops of birds and wild animals. In the forest, the shepherds grazed the cattle of the commoners.

The community produced almost everything that peasants needed: food, clothing, tools etc. Such artisans as blacksmiths, carpenters, weavers, potters, tailors also located near villages. Dues were the main food source for Indian peasants. The countryside at large and Indian religious institutions carry the indelible mark of their primitive origins because primitive modes of life have been and are still possible in many parts of India (Kosambi, 1964). Usually they had to give more than half the harvest to the feudal lord. In the lean years after the payment of dues peasants were often left empty-handed. The feudal lords send their serfs to the repair and construction of roads, the construction of canals, forts and temples.

In the VII century, in India, there were 70 independent principalities. Princes - Rajas - were the largest landowners. They lived in a beautiful palace, officials and soldiers surrounded them. Part of the land together with the peasants Raja handed to their relatives for military service. A lot of lands were prepared for priests Brahmins; Prince gave 1400 temples to villages.

Rajas were almost continuously at war with each other. Indian writer of the VII century, described the disaster that befell the peasants during the war: "Accidents jumped out of their huts, destroyed by elephants feet, and urged all to be witnesses of what is done with them. Others, seeing the pillage of their ripened grain, came forward, bitterly lamenting his fate" (Ki-Zerbo,1981)

In the XVI century the decline of the medieval Ethiopian government was launched. Torn by feudal contradictions, it was exposed to attacks of the Nomads. A major obstacle to the successful development of Ethiopia was its isolation from the centers of trade relations on the Red Sea. The process of centralization of the Ethiopian government began only in the XIX century.

On the east coast of Africa in the Middle Ages increased trade in city-states of Kilwa, Mombasa, Mogadishu. They had extensive ties with the states of the Arabian Peninsula, the Near East and India. There arose a civilization Swahili, absorbed the African and Arab culture. Since the X century, Arabs have played an increasingly important role in the relations with the eastern coast of Africa, a large number of Muslim countries in the Middle East and South Asia. The advent of the Portuguese in the late XV century. It violated the traditional ties of the eastern coast of Africa: started during the long struggle of African peoples against the European invaders. History of the inner regions of this region of Africa is known for insufficient due to a lack of historical sources. Arab sources in X. reported that in the area between the Zambezi and Limpopo, is the largest state, has a large number of gold mines. Civilization Zimbabwe ( it is heyday dates back to the XV century), the most famous in the period of state Monomotapa; We have survived numerous public and religious buildings, showing the high level of building culture. The collapse of the Empire Monomotapa came at the end of the XVII century. in connection with the expansion of the Portuguese slave trade.

References

Williams, Jackson, A. V. (1926). History of India. The Grolier Society.

Mokhtar, G.(1981). General History of Africa. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

Kulke, Hermann and Rothermund, Dietmar (2002). A History of India. Third edition. Taylor & Francis e-Library.

Kosambi, D. D. (1964). The Culture and Civilisation of Ancient India in Historical Outline. New York Journal.

Ki-Zerbo, J. (1981). General History of Africa. UNESCO