Cancer: A Global Health Crisis Killing 1/3 of Population - Research Paper

Introduction

After cardiovascular diseases, cancer is the second leading cause of death across the world. The sickness is characterized by abnormal growth of body cells causing tumors. Instead of dying, cancer tumors re-divide and spread to other parts of the body through lymph vessels or blood circulation. Recent researches have proven that about a third of the world's population contract cancer at some point in their lifetime. Notably, the disease has existed in the world for an extended period. Early detection of the sickness dates back to early Greek civilization, where literature about tumor treatment and cases written by Celsus and Hippocrates is evident. Today, people with cancer prolong their lives through early detection and treatment using various modern methods.

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Progress in the treatment of cancer has been gradual compared to other diseases. Ancient physicians such as Celsus noted that after excision, the tumors would still reoccur; therefore, people have always believed cancer to be incurable. Surgery has been the most utilized cancer intervention over the centuries and proliferated in the nineteenth century after the discovery of anesthesia. In the twentieth century, technology foresaw the evolution of cancer treatments with the introduction of chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and radiotherapy. Moreover, new techniques such as nanotechnology and gene therapy are providing new cutting edges in the treatment of the sicknesses with few side effects on body tissues. Notably, research has proven that early detection permits effective treatment of tumors. Despite the prolonged limitation of cancer treatment to conventional methods such as surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and radiotherapy, an examination of each process thoroughly will show that modern cancer treatment methods such as nanostructure-based therapeutics interventions are more effective with technological advancement.

Historical Analysis of Cancer Treatments

Surgery

Before the nineteenth century, radical surgery was the central intervention for cancer. The method involved excision of the tumor through primitive methods that led to high blood loss. Galen and Hippocrates's books were used to treat the sickness in the early centuries. Notably, doctors such as John Warren, Ashely Cooper, and John Hunter are reported to have conducted successful surgeries in the nineteenth century (Arruebo 3282). Nevertheless, the discovery of anesthesia revolutionized treatment with the introduction of cancer operations, which aimed at removing cancerous growths and their associated lymph nodes. The phenomenon facilitated Professor William Halsted introduction of radical mastectomy that aimed at removing the entire tumor and associated cells. The surgeon believed that after a tumor was removed, some cells were left behind, which caused the recurrence of cancer.

Radiotherapy

In 1895, scientists Emil Grubbe and Wilhelm Rontgen discovered x-ray radiations could be used to treat cancer (Jaffray and Gospodarowicz). The situation led to the introduction of radiation therapy as a mode of cancer treatment. The scientists noted that the radiation killed cancer cells preventing them from growing or spreading into other parts of the body. The first cure through radiation was achieved in 1998. However, the knowledge gap during the period accounted for the scientists' inability to account for any limitations of the procedure. Later, science proved that radiation killed both healthy and cancerous cells leading to new complications and potential tumors.

According to Jaffray and Gospodarowicz, radiation therapy accounts for the treatment of 3.5 million people annually. After the discovery of x-ray radiations, ionizing radiations were used to treat cancer. In this case, precise amounts of ionizing radiations were used to rapture DNAs in cells. The radiation preferred cancerous cells to healthy ones. Notably, radiotherapy was used to treat a wide range of cancer diseases such as prostate, lung, breast, and cervix tumors. Luckily, the development of computers led to the development of 3D x-ray therapy and information mapping from techniques such as computed tomography (CT) scans (Jaffray and Gospodarowicz). Furthermore, radiation therapy is an ideal intervention for localized tumors. In this case, it is used in the treatment of early cancer stages in prostate, head tumors, non-melanoma, lymphomas, and seminoma.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy involves the use of drugs to cure diseases present in the body. It is efficient since it supplements surgery and radiation by treating tumors in tissues that are not accessible via other interventions (Arruebo 3280). In 1940, the rise of cancer drugs and chemotherapy followed discoveries that mustard gas could be used to treat cancer. Mustard gas was used as a weapon to kill soldiers in trenches during World War 1 and 2. Gilman discovered that soldiers who had been exposed to mustard gas had reduced leukocytes levels, which led to the use of mustard gas in chemotherapy to treat lymphomas in 1943. The following decades foresaw the development of alkylating drugs to treat cancer. For example, Sidney Farber discovered that aminopterin caused remission to children with acute leukemia by inhibiting chemical reactions necessary for DNA replication (Arruebo 3297). The chemicals were the predecessor of methotrexate, which has since been used as a significant drug in the treatment of other cancerous sicknesses.

Cancer Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has advanced tremendously to become among the top cancer therapies. The development of biological knowledge led to the development of immunotherapy, which aims at improving the body's immune system to fight cancer (Oiseth and Mohamed 255). Cancer patients are immunosuppressed making their bodies unable to fight the disease. In the 1970s, scientists started specific mass-producing antibodies in the lab and directing them to tumors inhibiting their growth. For instance, trastuzumab and rituximab were the first monoclonal antibodies used to treat breast cancer and lymphoma in 1990. Today, CI involves the use of cytokines and vaccines, oncolytic viruses, and adoptive cell therapy. Cytokinins such as interferon and interleukin-2 are used as immunostimulatory to activate macrophages and monocytes responsible for killing cancer cells (Oiseth and Mohamed 256). Oncolytic viruses, such as herpes simplex-1 virus, are introduced into a patient's body to fight and lyse tumors since they do not attack healthy cells. On the other hand, sipuleucel-T is the only vaccine that is approved by the FDA to treat cancer.

Nanostructure-Based Therapeutics

In the twentieth century, nanostructure-based therapeutics has become dawn to cancer treatment since it is useful and minimizes collateral tissue damage. The use of nanotechnology to deliver specific antibodies and drugs to targeted cells has increased the efficiency in tumor elimination. Recent interventions include gene therapy, hyperthermia, photodynamic therapy, and targeted cancer therapies. The primary aim of nanomaterials is to deliver therapeutic particles into tumor cells through controlled mechanisms.

Firstly, in targeted cancer therapies, nanoparticles, such as antibodies, nucleic acids, and peptides, are prepared and targeted to their corresponding antigens or tumor cells over-expressed receptors (Gmeiner and Supratim 113). Moreover, coupling biological substances such as folic acid with nanoparticles are commonly used since folate receptors are numerous on tumor cells. On reaching their targets, the nanoparticles particles constituents, such as drugs, are released into the interior of the cell. Moreover, the nanoparticles may contain markers to help physicians monitor the tumor (Arruebo 3327). Additionally, moieties may be added onto the nanoparticles to aid their circulation in the blood system. However, the method has several drawbacks such as elimination from the circulation process due to nanoparticle identification by the reticuloendothelial system (RES). Notably, researchers are trying to come up with more targeting processes that will allow the activation of drugs when they reach the tumor cell to minimize side effects.

Secondly, photodynamic therapy utilizes a photosensitizer, which upon exposure to near infrared or visible light, transmits energy to molecular oxygen creating reactive species. The radicals oxidize lipids, proteins, and amino acids trigger cell death. Notably, the FDA allows only photosensitizers that absorb below 700 nm, which accounts for their minimal penetration into the skin (Gmeiner and Supratim 115). As a result, the intervention is limited to several skin cancers with minimal knowledge present concerning its involvement in the treatment of other advanced tumors. Additionally, photosensitizes have been fitted with nanoparticles to prevent photobleaching. In this case, photosensitizing cancer drugs are combined with silica nanoparticles and directed to the targeted cell.

Thirdly, Hyperthermia consists of heating cancerous cells to minimize their growth and multiplication by destroying or making them more susceptible to conventional interventions such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy. According to Arruebo, this intervention is currently being used as an alternative to radiation and chemotherapy (3325). In this case, high temperatures above 43 oC damage tumor cells causing death through thermal ablation. The success of the intervention occurs when the procedure is carried out with damaging neighboring tissues

Notably, the hyperthermia intervention utilizes ultrasounds, microwaves, and radio frequencies, which are capable of being focused on the targeted organ. It is more advantageous than other cancer treatments since it is comparatively less invasive (Gmeiner and Supratim 116). Today, the intervention is used to cure solid tumors such as melanoma, breast cancer, cervical cancer, and sarcoma. Notably, patients cured using the procedure have high survival patients compared to those of radiotherapy and chemo.

Fourthly, gene therapy focuses on delivering adequate genetic substances such as RNA, DNA, and oligonucleotides to specific target tissues or cells to eliminate pathogenic activities and restore the normal function of a cell (Gmeiner and Supratim 114). In Vito, which utilizes viruses such as herpes simplex-1 virus, and adenoviruses are the standard means of delivery of the genetic materials into the target cells. However, viruses may have a limited cargo capacity and initiate toxicity and immunogenicity; therefore, synthetic delivery methods may be used.

Effectiveness of Modern Treatments and Early Detection

Modern cancer treatment methods are more effective than the conventional ones in such a way that they reduce collateral damage and increase a patient's survival rate. Firstly, the use of nanoparticles and stem cells implantation reduces collateral tissue damage (Arruebo 3290). In interventions such as radiotherapy, neighboring healthy cells are affected by the radiations causing potential tumors. In the past, many cases concerning secondary complications have emerged; however, nanotechnology allows control and targeting of only cancerous cells. Secondly, modern treatment methods increase health outcomes and survival rates among patients. In this case, increased selectivity and damaging of cancerous growths improve an individual's quality of life. in other conventional methods such as surgery, tumors transferred to other body parts after excision; however, with nanotechnologies such as hyperthermia, the cells are destroyed.

Thirdly, one of the primary advantages of nanotechnology is the ability to facilitate the early detection of cancer. Imaging technologies such as photosensitive therapies enable physicians to monitor and identify tumors at an early stage (Arruebo...