Essay Sample on Salicylic Acid and Aspirin

Introduction

One of the most famous medicines based on acetylsalicylic acid is aspirin. Its name was obtained as follows: A of acetyl; Spir refers to Spiraea ulmaria (a plant that provides salicylic acid, commonly known as Willow); and in a suffix used at the time, forming the name Aspirin, which was later attributed to Aspirin (Dempsey, Amick & Daniel 5). Aspirin is the trademark of the active ingredient acetylsalicylic acid. It is an acetylated ester of salicylic acid. Aspirin contains an active substance acetylsalicylic acid, which is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory, which serves to relieve pain and lower fever in adults and children.

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In addition to this, in low doses, acetylsalicylic acid is used in adults as an inhibitor of platelet aggregation, to reduce the risk of acute myocardial infarction, prevent stroke, angina, and thrombosis in some people who have risk factors. Its molecular formula is C9H8O4 and has the following molecular structure:

Figure 1. Molecular structure of acetylsalicylic acid

It has a molecular weight of 180.16 g/mol. It appears as white or almost white crystalline powder, or in colorless elongated crystals. It has a slightly bitter and whitish flavor. It is poorly soluble in water, easily soluble in 96o ethanol. The chemical preparation is based on the salicylic acid obtained by synthesis that is then transformed by an acetylation process to acetylsalicylic acid (Keszycka et al. 11087). The analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of acetylsalicylic acid are similar to those of other non-steroidal anti-inflammatories. Acetylsalicylic acid is used in the treatment of numerous inflammatory and autoimmune conditions such as arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and osteoarthritis. Due to its antithrombotic properties, it is used to prevent or reduce the risk of myocardial infarction and transient attacks of ischemia.

Studies have shown that salicylic acid, which has excellent anti-rheumatic properties, antifebrile (antipyretic) and analgesic (painkillers), results in the digestion of salicin in the human body (Klessig et al. 12). Acetylsalicylic acid interferes with the synthesis of prostaglandins by irreversibly inhibiting cyclooxygenase, one of the two enzymes that act on arachidonic acid. Cyclooxygenase exists in the form of two isoenzymes: cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). These isoenzymes are encoded by different genes, present in different places (COX-1 is present mainly in the endoplasmic reticulum, while COX-2 is found in the nuclear membrane) and have different functions. COX-1 is expressed in almost all tissues and is responsible for the synthesis of prostaglandins in response to hormonal stimuli, to maintain normal renal function, as well as the integrity of the gastric mucosa and for hemostasis. COX-2 is expressed only in the brain, kidneys, reproductive organs, and some tumors. However, COX-2 is inducible in many cells in response to some mediators of inflammation such as interleukin-1, TNF, mitogens, lipopolysaccharides, and free radicals. An increase in the expression of COX-2 has been observed in colorectal adenomas as well as in other cancers. Aspirin acetylates serine in both COX and since almost all tissues produce eicosanoids, the effects of the drug are very diverse.

The anti-inflammatory activity of acetylsalicylic acid is due to the peripheral inhibition of the action of COX-1 and COX-2, although aspirin can also inhibit the synthesis of other mediators of inflammation. However, it is believed that the most important inflammatory response is mediated by COX-2 since this enzyme is inducible by cytokines (Klessig et al. 12). The inhibition of COX-2 by aspirin reduces the synthesis of prostaglandins E and F, prostaglandins that are responsible for vasodilation and capillary permeability which, in turn, increases the mobility of fluids and leukocytes that cause inflammation, redness, and pain. Acetylsalicylic acid not only decreases capillary permeability but also reduces the release of lysosome-destroying enzymes. Today, the reaction made to obtain it is between salicylic acid and acetic anhydride. If Aspirin tablets are stored for a long time, one may smell vinegar, which indicates that their consumption is not recommended and may cause violent irritation (Keszycka et al. 11089). This means that Aspirin has been decomposed by hydrolysis, giving rise to salicylic acid and acetic acid (acid in vinegar). Acetylsalicylic acid is synthesized from salicylic acid and acetic anhydride in the presence of acid, according to the indicated reaction. Once the acetylsalicylic acid is synthesized, it is necessary to crystallize it to eliminate the impurities it contains. This process must be done one or more times until the pure product is achieved.

Amides in Health and Medicine

Chemical compounds are important in all aspects, from nature, everyday life to the industrial environment. An amide is formed from a carboxylic acid and ammonia or an amine. An acid reacts with an amine to form an ammonium carboxylate. When this salt is heated above 100 C, the amide is obtained and water is released in the form of steam, which is due to a condensation reaction. The amides are derived not only from the aliphatic or aromatic carboxylic acids but also from other types of acids, such as those containing sulfur and phosphorus.

The amides are a derivative of the functional group of the carboxylic acids, in which the -OH group has been replaced by -NH2, to form a primary amide; -NHR, a secondary amide, or -NRR ', tertiary amide. Its empirical formula is RCONR ', where R is the main chain of the amide, CO is the carbonyl group, and R' can be an H or a radical that replaces it (Huang et al. 1027). To name the primary amides, the suffix -ico, of the carboxylic acid from which it is derived, is replaced by the -amide ending, and the word acid is eliminated. If it is secondary or tertiary, the name of the substituent (s) is prefixed to the main chain preceded by the letter N-, to signify that they are not directly linked to the chain but by means of Nitrogen.

Compared with amines, amides are very weak bases, because while the pH of the amines is approximately 9.5, that of the amides is close to -0.5. However, amides are much stronger bases than carboxylic acids, esters, aldehydes, and ketones. This is why amides are considered basic (Yang et al. 308). Amines are commonly found in nature. They can be found in different substances such as in amino acids, proteins, DNA and RNA, vitamins and hormones. The reaction of ammonia (primary or secondary amines) with esters is one of the main and best-known methods for obtaining these compounds.

The human body needs them for the excretion of ammonia (NH3). They are widely used in the pharmaceutical industry (medicines), and in the nylon industry (clothes). The amides are used especially as foaming and thickening agents. The main use given to the amides is in the polymerization of the same. Polyamides are the raw material for many synthetic fibers, such as different types of nylon. In addition, some types of polyamides are also used in special industrial-type paints.

The amides can be unsubstituted and substituted. The unsubstituted amides of the aliphatic carboxylic acids are widely used as intermediates, stabilizers, release agents for plastics, films, surfactants, and fluxes. For its part, the substituted amides, such as dimethylformamide and dimethylacetamide have very powerful solvent properties (Huang et al. 1029). For this reason, dimethylformamide is used especially as a solvent in chemical processes such as organic synthesis, in the manufacture of synthetic fibers and as a solvent for dyes. It is also used in the extraction of aromatic compounds from crude oil. Both are components of paint solvents. In turn, dimethylacetamide is also used as a solvent for plastics, resins, gums and in a large number of organic reactions.

Acetamide has several uses, for example, in the denaturation of alcohol, solvent of organic compounds, plasticizer, and additive for paper. It can also be found in lacquers, explosives, and fluxes. Formamide is a paper softener and glues and is used as a solvent in the plastics and pharmaceutical industry (Yang et al. 310). Amides are important components in pharmacological products, since this group is the central part of several biological and pharmaceutical products and is the starting point for obtaining natural products. Hydantoins and benzodiazepines contain an amide in the ring of its structure, these are a class of psychotropic drugs that are considered minor tranquilizers and anticonvulsants. Benzodiazepines competitively inhibit the binding site of neurons for the neurotransmitter gh-aminobutyric acid, which causes the inhibition of neurons and creates psychotropic effects. Another medication is Gleevec (an inhibitor of porteintyroskinase used in the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia) and Altace (an ACE inhibitor used in the treatment of hypertension and heart disease) that also contain amides.

Works Cited

Dempsey, D'Maris Amick, and Daniel F. Klessig. "How Does the Multifaceted Plant Hormone Salicylic Acid Combat Disease in Plants and Are Similar Mechanisms Utilized in Humans?" BMC Biology, vol. 15, no. 1, 2017, doi:10.1186/s12915-017-0364-8.

Huang, Zhongping, et al. "An Efficient Synthesis of Amides and Esters via Triacyloxyboranes." Synlett, vol. 2007, no. 7, 2007, pp. 1026-1030., doi:10.1055/s-2007-973890.

Keszycka, Paulina K., et al. "Overall Content of Salicylic Acid and Salicylates in Food Available on the European Market." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 65, no. 50, July 2017, pp. 11085-11091., doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04313.

Klessig, Daniel F., et al. "Multiple Targets of Salicylic Acid and Its Derivatives in Plants and Animals." Frontiers in Immunology, vol. 7, 2016, doi:10.3389/fimmu.2016.00206.

Yang, Xiao-Dong, et al. "Silica Gel-Mediated Amide Bond Formation: An Environmentally Benign Method for Liquid-Phase Synthesis and Cytotoxic Activities of Amides." Journal of Combinatorial Chemistry, vol. 12, no. 3, Oct. 2010, pp. 307-310., doi:10.1021/cc900135f.